DETERMINANTS OF ANTI-FEMINIST ATTITUDES IN WOMEN
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15503/onis2025.8Keywords:
feminism, feminists, ambivalent sexism, system justifying, cultural right-wing views, religiosityAbstract
Objective. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between system justification, ambivalent sexism, cultural conservatism, and religiosity, and anti-feminist attitudes among women.
Method. The study used a set of standardized tools: the Shortened Ambivalent Sexism Scale, the System Justification Scale, and the Political Attitudes Questionnaire. An original Anti-Feminist Attitudes Scale was also used. Religiousness was measured using self-report questions.
Results. The results of the regression analysis showed that the strongest predictors of anti-feminist attitudes are hostile sexism and cultural right-wingism. The hypotheses that were not confirmed concern benevolent sexism, system justification, and religiosity.
Conclusions. The results partially confirmed the hypotheses put forward in the study, indicating a strong correlation between right-wing worldview and hostile sexism with anti-feminist attitudes, which may be related to maintaining the status quo. The low predictive value of the other variables may indicate their widespread, strong internalization and the reduction of the cognitive dissonance associated with them, as well as a relative understanding of the concept of feminism. The conclusions presented here may serve as a starting point for further research into specific aspects of anti-feminist attitudes among women.
Downloads
References
Allport, G. W., Clark, K., Pettigrew, T. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of personality and social psychology, 5(4), 432.
Becker, J. C. (2010). Why do women endorse hostile and benevolent sexism? The role of salient female subtypes and internalization of sexist contents. Sex Roles, 62, 453-467.
Bird, C. (1968). On being born female. Vital Speeches of the Day, 25(3), 88-91.
Boski, P. (1993). O dwóch wymiarach lewicy-prawicy na scenie politycznej i w wartościach polskich wyborców. W: J. Reykowski (red.), Wartości i postawy społeczne a przemiany systemowe. Szkice z psychologii politycznej (s. 49–100). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PA.
Buschman, J. K., Lenart, S. (1996). " I am not a feminist, but...": College women, feminism, and negative experiences. Political Psychology, 59-75.
Castle, J. J., Jenkins, S., Ortbals, C. D., Poloni-Staudinger, L., Strachan, J. C. (2020). The Effect of the #MeToo Movement on Political Engagement and Ambition in 2018. Political Research Quarterly, 73(4), 926-941.
Crenshaw, K. (2013). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. W: K. Maschke (red.), Feminist legal theories (s. 23-51). Routledge.
Czarnek, G., Dragon, P., Szwed, P., Wojciszke, B. (2017). Kwestionariusz przekonań politycznych: własności psychometryczne. Psychologia Społeczna, 12(2 (41)).
Duriez, B., Van Hiel, A., Kossowska, M. (2005). Authoritarianism and social dominance in Western and Eastern Europe: The importance of the sociopolitical context and of political interest and involvement. Political Psychology, 26, 299–320.
Fiske, S.T., Xu, J., Cuddy, A.C., Glick, P. (1999). (Dis) respecting versus (dis) liking: Status and interdependence predict ambivalent stereotypes of competence and warmth. Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 473-489.
Fischer, A. R. (2006). Women's benevolent sexism as reaction to hostility. Psychology of Women Wuarterly, 30(4), 410-416.
Frąckowiak-Sochańska, M. (2011). Postawy polskich kobiet wobec feminizmu. O samoograniczającej się świadomości feministycznej kobiet. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Sociologica, 39, 149-170.
Gajewska, A., (2008). Hasło: feminizm. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie.
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512.
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J., Abrams, D., Masser, B., et al. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775.
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109-11
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Castro, Y. R. (2002). Education and Catholic religiosity as predictors of hostile and benevolent sexism toward women and men. Sex Roles, 47, 433-441
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., ... & Wells, R. (2004). Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(5), 713-728.
Główny Urząd Statystyczny (2023). Narodowy Spis Powszechny Ludności i Mieszkań 2021: Ludność. Stan i struktura demograficzno-społeczna w świetle wyników NSP 2021.
Grajek, E., Ratka, J. (2021). Jak daleko psycholożce do psychologa?. Ogrody Nauk i Sztuk, (11), 87-105.
Hannam J. (2007). Feminism. Harlow: Pearson/Longman.
Jakubowska, U. (2018). O naturze preferencji politycznych: perspektywa psychologiczna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Jensen, L., Jensen, J. (1993). Family values, religiosity, and gender. Psychological Reports, 73(2), 429-430.
Jones, K., Stewart, K., King, E., Botsford Morgan, W., Gilrane, V., Hylton, K. (2014). Negative consequence of benevolent sexism on efficacy and performance. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 29(3), 171-189.
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25(6), 881-919.
Jost, J. T., Chaikalis-Petritsis, V., Abrams, D., Sidanius, J., Van Der Toorn, J., & Bratt, C. (2012). Why men (and women) do and don’t rebel: Effects of system justification on willingness to protest. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 197-208.
Jost, J. T., Hunyady, O. (2002). The psychology of system justification and the palliative function of ideology. European Review of Social Psychology, 13, 111–153.
Jost, J. T., Kay, A.C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 498-509.
Jost, J. T., Nam H.H., Amodio, D.M., Van Bavel, J.J. (2014). Political neuroscience: The beginning of a beautiful friendship. Advances in Political Psychology, 35(1), 3–42.
Kay, A. C., Jost, J. T. (2003). Complementary justice: effects of "poor but happy" and "poor but honest" stereotype exemplars on system justification and implicit activation of the justice motive. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 823-837.
Kilianski, S. E., Rudman, L. A. (1998). Wanting it both ways: Do women approve of benevolent sexism?. Sex Roles, 39(5), 333-352.
Klebaniuk, J. (2010). Orientacja na dominację społeczną i usprawiedliwianie systemu w kontekście nierówności międzypaństwowych. Psychologia Społeczna, 5, 42-56.
Kluegel J. R., Smith E. R. (1986). Beliefs about inequality: Americans’ view of what is and what ought to be. Hawthorne, NJ: Aldine de Gruyter.
Koralewska I., Zielińska K. (2022) ‘Defending the unborn’, ‘protecting women’ and ‘preserving culture and nation’: anti-abortion discourse in the Polish right-wing press, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 24(5), 673-687.
Kossowska, M. (2005). Umysł niezmienny...: poznawcze mechanizmy sztywności. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Krok, D. (2009). Religijność a duchowość–różnice i podobieństwa z perspektywy psychologii religii. Polskie Forum Psychologiczne, 14 (1), 126-141.
Leach, C. W., Spears, R., Branscombe, N. R., Doosje, B. (2003). Malicious pleasure: Schadenfreude at the suffering of another group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 932–943.
Lipset, S.M. (1998). Homo politicus. Społeczne podstawy polityki. Przeł. G. Dziurdzik-Kraśniewska. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Łyś, A. E., Mity i stereotypy na temat przemocy seksualnej – geneza, konsekwencje, wyzwania. W: Błasińska K, Pasikowski S., Piekarski G., Ratkowska-Pasikowska J. (red.) Nierówności społeczne. W trosce o otwarcia horyzontów edukacji. Gdańsk: Fundacja Instytut Równowagi Społeczno-Ekonomicznej, 117-134.
Major, B. (1994). From social inequality to personal entitlement: The role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 293–348.
Mikołajczak, M. (2009). Seksizm ambiwalentny i religijność katolicka w Polsce (niepublikowana praca magisterska). Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa.
Moore, H. L. (1997). Feminism and anthropology. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Mugny, G., Perez, J.A. (1989) ‘‘L’effet de cryptomne´sie sociale’’, Bulletin Suisse des Psychologues, 7, 3–6.
Napier, J. L., Jost, J. T. (2008). Why are conservatists happier than liberals? Psychological Science, 19, 565-572.
Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Jost, J. T. (2010). The joy of sexism? A multinational investigation of hostile and benevolent justifications for gender inequality and their relations to subjective well-being. Sex Roles, 62, 405-419.
Napier, J. L., Suppes, A., Bettinsoli, M. L. (2020). Denial of gender discrimination is associated with better subjective well‐being among women: A system justification account. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(6), 1191-1209.
O’Brien, L. T., Major, B. N. (2005). System justifying beliefs and psychological well-being: The roles of group status and identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1718–1729.
Parker, C., Scott, S., Geddes, A. (2019). Snowball Sampling. SAGE Research Methods Foundations.
Pasieka, A. (2011). Historie kuchenne: czyli o religijności mieszkanek polskiej wsi. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Perez, J.A., Mugny, G. (1990) Minority Influence, Manifest Discrimination and Latent Influence. W: D. Abrams and M. Hogg (red.) Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances, (s. 68-152). New York: Springer Verlag.
Pietrzak, J., Mikołajczak, M. (2015). Seksizm w Polsce. W: M. Mikołajczak (Red.), Uprzedzenia w Polsce, (s. 207–232). Warszawa: Liberi Libri.
Pospiszyl K. (2008). Przestępstwa seksualne. Geneza, postacie, resocjalizacja oraz zabezpieczenia przed powrotnością. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
Proctor, D. (2022). The# tradwife persona and the rise of radicalized white domesticity. Persona Studies, 8(2), 7-26.
Pruchniewska, U. M. (2019). Everyday feminism in the digital era: Gender, the fourth wave, and social media affordances. Temple University.
Sadłoń, W. S., Stępisiewicz, R. (2015). Religijność i aktywność kobiet w kościele katolickim w Polsce. Instytut Statystyki Kościoła Katolickiego.
Sanchez, L., Hall, C. S. (1999). Traditional values and democratic impulses: The gender division of labor in contemporary Spain. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(4), 659-685.
Schlenker, B. R., Chambers, J. R., Le, B. M. (2012). Conservatives are happier than liberals, but why? Political ideology, personality, and life satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(2), 127-146.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L. (2009). Sexism. W: T. D. Nelson (red.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (s. 407–430). New York: Psychology Press.
Tougas, F., Brown, R., Beaton, A. M., Joly, S. (1995). Neosexism: Plus ça change, plus c’est pareil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(8), 842-849.
Wilcox, C., Jelen, T. G. (1991). The effect of employment and religion on women’s feminist attitudes. International Journal for the Study of Religion, 1, 161–171.
Wojciszke, B. (2011). Psychologia społeczna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
World Values Survey (2006). European and World Values Surveys Four-Wave Integrated Data File, 1981–2004, v.20060423.
Yeung, A. W. Y., Kay, A. C., Peach, J. M. (2014). Anti-feminist backlash: The role of system justification in the rejection of feminism. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 17(4), 474-484.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Aleksandra Koziołek
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
